AUSTIN

AUSTIN. Laws defined and classified. The Divine Laws; how are we to
know the Divine Will? Utility the sole criterion. Objections to
Utility. Criticism of the theory of a Moral Sense. Prevailing
misconceptions as to Utility. Nature of Law resumed and illustrated.
Impropriety of the term "law" as applied to the operations of Nature.

Among animals preparedness for struggles is a conspicuous cause

of strife
Among animals preparedness for struggles is a conspicuous cause
of strife. The monkey who stalks about among his fellows with
muscles tense, tail erect, teeth bared, bespeaking expectancy
of and longing for a fight, usually provokes it. We may not
safely argue that lower animals prove the value of preparedness
for war as a preventive measure! Among them, as among human
groups, the only justification of militarism is protection and
aggression. Preparedness for strife is provocative rather than
preventive thereof.

Faraday died a poor man in 1867, neither for lack of

opportunity nor for lack of ability to grasp his opportunities,
but because as his pupil Tyndall tells us, he found it
necessary to choose between the pursuit of wealth and the
pursuit of science, and he deliberately chose the latter
Faraday died a poor man in 1867, neither for lack of
opportunity nor for lack of ability to grasp his opportunities,
but because as his pupil Tyndall tells us, he found it
necessary to choose between the pursuit of wealth and the
pursuit of science, and he deliberately chose the latter. This
is not a bad thing. It is perhaps as it should be, and as it
has been in the vast majority of cases. But another fact which
can not be viewed with like equanimity is that of all the
inexhaustible wealth which Faraday poured into the lap of the
world, not one millionth, not a discernible fraction, has ever
been returned to science for the furtherance of its aims and
its achievements, for the continuance of research.

It is a good idea to consult a physician in regard to one"s diet, and

endeavor intelligently to follow his advice and not insist on one"s own
diet, selected from the standpoint of mere self-indulgence or custom
It is a good idea to consult a physician in regard to one"s diet, and
endeavor intelligently to follow his advice and not insist on one"s own
diet, selected from the standpoint of mere self-indulgence or custom.
Moreover, since many, without being aware of the fact, are affected with
Bright"s disease, diabetes, etc., in their early stages, in which
dietetic precautions are especially necessary, it is well, even for
those who are apparently in good health, to be medically examined as a
preliminary to a rearrangement of their diet along the best lines.

In the (unfinished) _Summa Theologiae_, the Ethical views and cognate

questions occupy the two sections of the second part--the so-called
_prima_ and _secunda secundae_
In the (unfinished) _Summa Theologiae_, the Ethical views and cognate
questions occupy the two sections of the second part--the so-called
_prima_ and _secunda secundae_. He begins, in the Aristotelian fashion,
by seeking an ultimate end of human action, and finds it in the
attainment of the highest good or happiness. But as no created thing
can answer to the idea of the highest good, it must be placed in God.
God, however, as the highest good, can only be the object, in the
search after human happiness, for happiness in itself is a state of the
mind or act of the soul. The question then arises, 'what sort of act?'
Does it fall under the Will or under the Intelligence? The answer is,
Not under the will, because happiness is neither desire nor pleasure,
but _consecutio_, that is, a possessing. Desire precedes _consecutio_,
and pleasure follows upon it; but the act of getting possession, in
which lies happiness, is distinct from both. This is illustrated by the
case of the miser having his happiness in the mere possession of money;
and the position is essentially the same as Butler"s, in regard to our
appetites and desires, that they blindly seek their objects with no
regard to pleasure. Thomas concludes that the _consecutio_, or
happiness, is an act of the intelligence; what pleasure there is being
a mere accidental accompaniment.

During a recent military encampment in Chicago large numbers of young

girls were attracted to it by that glamour which always surrounds the
soldier
During a recent military encampment in Chicago large numbers of young
girls were attracted to it by that glamour which always surrounds the
soldier. On the complaint of several mothers, investigators discovered
that the girls were there without the knowledge of their parents, some
of them having literally climbed out of windows after their parents had
supposed them asleep. A thorough investigation disclosed not only an
enormous increase of business in the restricted districts, but the
downfall of many young girls who had hitherto been thoroughly
respectable and able to resist the ordinary temptations of city life,
but who had completely lost their heads over the glitter of a military
camp. One young girl was seen by an investigator in the late evening
hurrying away from the camp. She was so absorbed in her trouble and so
blinded by her tears that she fairly ran against him and he heard her
praying, as she frantically clutched the beads around her neck, 'Oh,
Mother of God, what have I done! What have I done!' The Chicago
encampment was finally brought under control through the combined
efforts of the park commissioners, the city police, and the military
authorities, but not without a certain resentment from the last toward
'civilian interference.' Such an encampment may be regarded as an
historic survival representing the standing armies sustained in Europe
since the days of the Roman Empire. These large bodies of men, deprived
of domestic life, have always afforded centres in which contempt for the
chastity of women has been fostered. The older centres of militarism
have established prophylactic measures designed to protect the health of
the soldiers, but evince no concern for the fate of the ruined women. It
is a matter of recent history that Josephine Butler and the men and
women associated with her, subjected themselves to unspeakable insult
for eight years before they finally induced the English Parliament to
repeal the infamous Contagious Disease Acts relating to the garrison
towns of Great Britain, through which the government itself not only
permitted vice, but legally provided for it within certain specified
limits.

And, gentlemen trustees and citizens of Bernardston, may I not

personally and especially invite you to consider the importance of a
fixed standard of admission and a careful examination of candidates?
This course is essential to the improvement of your district and village
schools
And, gentlemen trustees and citizens of Bernardston, may I not
personally and especially invite you to consider the importance of a
fixed standard of admission and a careful examination of candidates?
This course is essential to the improvement of your district and village
schools. It is essential to the true prosperity of this seminary, and it
is also essential to the intellectual advancement of the people within
your influence. You expect pupils from the neighboring towns. Your
object is not pecuniary profit, but the education of the people. If your
requirements are positive, though it may not be difficult to meet them
in the beginning, every town that depends upon this institution for
better learning than it can furnish at home will be compelled to
maintain schools of a high order. On the other hand, negligence in this
particular will not only degrade the school under your care here, but
the schools in this town and the cause of education in the vicinity will
be unfavorably affected. Nor let the objection that a rigid standard of
qualifications will exclude many pupils, and diminish the attendance
upon the school, have great weight; for you perform but half your duty
when you provide the means of a good education for your own students.
You are also, through the power inherent in this authority, to do
something to elevate the standard of learning in other schools, and in
the country around. What harm if this school be small, while by its
influence other schools are made better, and thus every boy and girl in
the vicinity has richer means of education than could otherwise have
been secured? Thus will tens, and hundreds, and thousands, of successive
generations, have cause to bless this school, though they may never have
sat under its teachers, or been within its walls.

Gail Hamilton"s statement is true, that, 'a girl can go to school,

pursue all the studies which Dr
Gail Hamilton"s statement is true, that, 'a girl can go to school,
pursue all the studies which Dr. Todd enumerates, except _ad
infinitum_; know them, not as well as a chemist knows chemistry or a
botanist botany, but as well as they are known by boys of her age and
training, as well, indeed, as they are known by many college-taught
men, enough, at least, to be a solace and a resource to her; then
graduate before she is eighteen, and come out of school as healthy, as
fresh, as eager, as she went in.'[1] But it is not true that she can
do all this, and retain uninjured health and a future secure from
neuralgia, uterine disease, hysteria, and other derangements of the
nervous system, if she follows the same method that boys are trained
in. Boys must study and work in a boy"s way, and girls in a girl"s
way. They may study the same books, and attain an equal result, but
should not follow the same method. Mary can master Virgil and Euclid
as well as George; but both will be dwarfed,--defrauded of their
rightful attainment,--if both are confined to the same methods. It is
said that Elena Cornaro, the accomplished professor of six languages,
whose statue adorns and honors Padua, was educated like a boy. This
means that she was initiated into, and mastered, the studies that were
considered to be the peculiar dower of men. It does not mean that her
life was a man"s life, her way of study a man"s way of study, or that,
in acquiring six languages, she ignored her own organization. Women
who choose to do so can master the humanities and the mathematics,
encounter the labor of the law and the pulpit, endure the hardness of
physic and the conflicts of politics; but they must do it all in
woman"s way, not in man"s way. In all their work they must respect
their own organization, and remain women, not strive to be men, or
they will ignominiously fail. For both sexes, there is no exception to
the law, that their greatest power and largest attainment lie in the
perfect development of their organization. 'Woman,' says a late
writer, 'must be regarded as woman, not as a nondescript animal, with
greater or less capacity for assimilation to man.' If we would give
our girls a fair chance, and see them become and do their best by
reaching after and attaining an ideal beauty and power, which shall be
a crown of glory and a tower of strength to the republic, we must look
after their complete development as women. Wherein they are men, they
should be educated as men; wherein they are women, they should be
educated as women. The physiological motto is, Educate a man for
manhood, a woman for womanhood, both for humanity. In this lies the
hope of the race.

But how to proceed in order to make the discovery of the latent

talent is the pressing problem
But how to proceed in order to make the discovery of the latent
talent is the pressing problem. For a long time our methods
promise to be as empirical as are those we employ for the
advancement of science. Relative to the latter, after
enumerating a large list of conditions for promoting science of
which we are ignorant, Professor Cattell says:

The need of cleanliness is particularly great for those who work in

factories, mines, and other places where dirt is likely to be carried to
the mouth by the hands
The need of cleanliness is particularly great for those who work in
factories, mines, and other places where dirt is likely to be carried to
the mouth by the hands. Probably many diseases get a foothold in this
way without the victim realizing in the least that they were due to his
carelessness and lack of cleanliness.

The recognized weaknesses of Laplace"s hypothesis have caused

many other hypotheses to be proposed in the past half century
The recognized weaknesses of Laplace"s hypothesis have caused
many other hypotheses to be proposed in the past half century.
The hypotheses of Faye, Lockyer, du Ligondes, See, Arrhenius,
and Chamberlin and Moulton include many of the features of
Kant"s or Laplace"s hypotheses, but all of them advance and
develop other ideas. It is unfortunate that space limits do not
permit us to discuss the new features of each hypothesis.

A light breakfast is advisable; one or two poached eggs, no sugar, bread

and butter in small quantity
A light breakfast is advisable; one or two poached eggs, no sugar, bread
and butter in small quantity.

As regards the Psychology of Disinterested Action, he provides nothing

but a repetition of Butler (Chapter III
As regards the Psychology of Disinterested Action, he provides nothing
but a repetition of Butler (Chapter III.) and a vague assertion of the
absurdity of denying disinterested benevolence.

(4) It is often affirmed by those that regard virtue, and not

happiness, as the end, that the two coincide in the long run
(4) It is often affirmed by those that regard virtue, and not
happiness, as the end, that the two coincide in the long run. Now, not
to dwell upon the very serious doubts as to the matter of fact, a
universal coincidence without causal connexion is so rare as to be in
the last degree improbable. A fiction of this sort was contrived by
Leibnitz, under the title of "pre-established harmony;" but, among the
facts of the universe, there are only one or two cases known to
investigation.

The Idea of Justice is thus shown to be grounded in Law; and the next

question is, does the strong feeling or sentiment of Justice grow out
of considerations of utility? Mr
The Idea of Justice is thus shown to be grounded in Law; and the next
question is, does the strong feeling or sentiment of Justice grow out
of considerations of utility? Mr. Mill conceives that though the notion
of expediency or utility does not give birth to the sentiment, it gives
birth to what is _moral_ in it.

[18] Stewart, Chas

[18] Stewart, Chas. E.: _The Influence of Alcohol on the Opsonic Power
of the Blood_, Mod. Med., 1907, XVI, pp. 241-246. Read before the
American Society for the Study of Alcohol and Drug Neuroses, Atlantic
City, June 4, 1907, and published in the Jour. of Inebriety.

Several fairly well-marked volitional types may be discovered

Several fairly well-marked volitional types may be discovered. It is, of
course, to be understood that these types all grade by insensible
degrees into each other, and that extreme types are the exception rather
than the rule.

We believe, therefore, that Dr

We believe, therefore, that Dr. Woods"s conclusion--that 'there
have been a few notable exceptions, but broadly speaking all
our very capable men of the present day have been engendered
from the Anglo-Saxon element already here before the beginning
of the nineteenth century'--should be modified. A sounder
conclusion and, in fact, the only one that could be reached
through the results established above, would be this:
Achievement in those activities represented in 'Who"s Who in
America' is acquired disproportionately by stocks predominantly
Teutonic in comparison with the Irish.

IMAGES AS THE MATERIAL OF MEMORY

IMAGES AS THE MATERIAL OF MEMORY.--In the light of our discussion upon
mental imagery, and with the aid of a little introspection, the answer
is easy. I ask you to remember your home, and at once a visual image of
the familiar house, with its well-known rooms and their characteristic
furnishings, comes to your mind. I ask you to remember the last concert
you attended, or the chorus of birds you heard recently in the woods;
and there comes a flood of images, partly visual, but largely auditory,
from the melodies you heard. Or I ask you to remember the feast of
which you partook yesterday, and gustatory and olfactory images are
prominent among the others which appear. And so I might keep on until I
had covered the whole range of your memory; and, whether I ask you for
the simple trivial experiences of your past, for the tragic or crucial
experiences, or for the most abstruse and abstract facts which you know
and can recall, the case is the same: much of what memory presents to
you comes in the form of _images_ or of _ideas_ of your past.

During the first period there was a slight increase in strength (from an

average 'total' strength of 1,076 to 1,118), and during the second
period a slight fall to 995, which is about 12 per cent
During the first period there was a slight increase in strength (from an
average 'total' strength of 1,076 to 1,118), and during the second
period a slight fall to 995, which is about 12 per cent. from the
mid-year"s 1,118, and about 8 per cent. from the original 1,076. Thus
the strength of the men remained nearly stationary throughout the
experiment.

THE NEO-PLATONISTS

THE NEO-PLATONISTS. The Moral End to be attained through an
intellectual regimen. The soul being debased by its connection with
matter, the aim of human action is to regain the spiritual life. The
first step is the practice of the cardinal virtues: the next the
purifying virtues. Happiness is the undisturbed life of contemplation.
Correspondence of the Ethical, with the Metaphysical scheme.

It may not be unprofitable to give the history of one more case of

this sort
It may not be unprofitable to give the history of one more case of
this sort. Miss E---- had an hereditary right to a good brain and to
the best cultivation of it. Her father was one of our ripest and
broadest American scholars, and her mother one of our most
accomplished American women. They both enjoyed excellent health. Their
daughter had a literary training,--an intellectual, moral, and
aesthetic half of education, such as their supervision would be likely
to give, and one that few young men of her age receive. Her health did
not seem to suffer at first. She studied, recited, walked, worked,
stood, and the like, in the steady and sustained way that is normal to
the male organization. She _seemed_ to evolve force enough to acquire
a number of languages, to become familiar with the natural sciences,
to take hold of philosophy and mathematics, and to keep in good
physical case while doing all this. At the age of twenty-one she
might have been presented to the public, on Commencement Day, by the
president of Vassar College or of Antioch College or of Michigan
University, as the wished-for result of American liberal female
culture. Just at this time, however, the catamenial function began to
show signs of failure of power. No severe or even moderate illness
overtook her. She was subjected to no unusual strain. She was only
following the regimen of continued and sustained work, regardless of
Nature"s periodical demands for a portion of her time and force, when,
without any apparent cause, the failure of power was manifested by
moderate dysmenorrhoea and diminished excretion. Soon after this the
function ceased altogether; and up to this present writing, a period
of six or eight years, it has shown no more signs of activity than an
amputated arm. In the course of a year or so after the cessation of
the function, her head began to trouble her. First there was headache,
then a frequent congested condition, which she described as a 'rush
of blood' to her head; and, by and by, vagaries and forebodings and
despondent feelings began to crop out. Coincident with this mental
state, her skin became rough and coarse, and an inveterate acne
covered her face. She retained her appetite, ability to exercise and
sleep. A careful local examination of the pelvic organs, by an expert,
disclosed no lesion or displacement there, no ovaritis or other
inflammation. Appropriate treatment faithfully persevered in was
unsuccessful in recovering the lost function. I was finally obliged to
consign her to an asylum.

Educators, until recently, have, in emphasizing the paramount

importance of mental training, lost sight of the needs of the
body
Educators, until recently, have, in emphasizing the paramount
importance of mental training, lost sight of the needs of the
body. Their classical ideals and formal methods made dead
languages, mathematics, philosophy etc., the school diet of
boys whose normal hunger was for action, and for learning by
doing.

IV

IV.-The CLASSIFICATION OF DUTIES is characteristic of different
systems and different authors. The oldest scheme is the Four Cardinal
Virtues--Prudence, Courage, Temperance, Justice. The modern Christian
moralists usually adopt the division--Duties to God, to Others, to
Self.

He supposes, however, that the alleged agreement may be challenged,

_first_, as not existing; and _next_, as insufficient to reason from
He supposes, however, that the alleged agreement may be challenged,
_first_, as not existing; and _next_, as insufficient to reason from.

If the public will not offer to its youth valuable reading, such as its

experience, its wisdom, its knowledge of the claims of society, its
morality may select, shall the public complain if its young men and
women are tempted by frivolous and pernicious mental occupations? It is,
moreover, the duty of the public to furnish the means of self-education,
especially in the science of government; and political learning, for the
most part, must be gained after the school-going period of life has
passed
If the public will not offer to its youth valuable reading, such as its
experience, its wisdom, its knowledge of the claims of society, its
morality may select, shall the public complain if its young men and
women are tempted by frivolous and pernicious mental occupations? It is,
moreover, the duty of the public to furnish the means of self-education,
especially in the science of government; and political learning, for the
most part, must be gained after the school-going period of life has
passed.

But does it not seem a paradox to say (according to the doctrine of

habit in I
But does it not seem a paradox to say (according to the doctrine of
habit in I.), that a man becomes just, by performing just actions;
since, if he performs just actions, he is already just? The answer is
given by a distinction drawn in a comparison with the training in the
common arts of life. That a man is a good writer or musician, we see
by his writing or his music; we take no account of the state of his
mind in other respects: if he knows how to do this, it is enough. But
in respect to moral excellence, such knowledge is not enough: a man
may do just or temperate acts, but he is not necessarily a just or
temperate man, unless he does them with right intention and on their
own account. This state of the internal mind, which is requisite to
constitute the just and temperate man, follows upon the habitual
practice of just and temperate acts, and follows upon nothing else.
But most men are content to talk without any such practice. They fancy
erroneously that _knowing_, without doing, will make a good man. [We
have here the reaction against the Sokratic doctrine of virtue, and
also the statement of the necessity of a _prosper motive_, in order to
virtue.]

The notorious instance of money exemplifies this operation

The notorious instance of money exemplifies this operation. The same
may be said of power and fame; although these are ends as well as
means. We should be but ill provided with happiness, were it not for
this provision of nature, whereby, things, originally indifferent, but
conducive to the satisfaction of our primitive desires, become in
themselves sources of pleasure, of even greater value than the
primitive pleasures, both in permanency and in the extent of their
occupation of our life. Virtue is originally valuable as bringing
pleasure and avoiding pain; but by association it may be felt as a good
in itself, and be desired as intensely as any other good; with this
superiority over money, power, or fame, that it makes the individual a
blessing to society, while these others may make him a curse.

I

I.--The Ethical Standard, or criterion of moral Right and Wrong. This
we have seen is, ultimately, the Science of Good and Evil, as
determined by a Scientific or Wise man; the Idea of the Good, which
only a philosopher can ascend to. Plato gave no credit to the maxims
of the existing society; these were wholly unscientific.

In the course of this crude study we shall have to touch on what is

called the problem of poverty, especially the dehumanized poverty
of modern industrialism
In the course of this crude study we shall have to touch on what is
called the problem of poverty, especially the dehumanized poverty
of modern industrialism. But in this primary matter of the ideal
the difficulty is not the problem of poverty, but the problem of wealth.
It is the special psychology of leisure and luxury that falsifies life.
Some experience of modern movements of the sort called 'advanced' has
led me to the conviction that they generally repose upon some experience
peculiar to the rich. It is so with that fallacy of free love of which I
have already spoken; the idea of sexuality as a string of episodes.
That implies a long holiday in which to get tired of one woman,
and a motor car in which to wander looking for others; it also implies
money for maintenances. An omnibus conductor has hardly time
to love his own wife, let alone other people"s. And the success with
which nuptial estrangements are depicted in modern 'problem plays'
is due to the fact that there is only one thing that a drama
cannot depict--that is a hard day"s work. I could give many other
instances of this plutocratic assumption behind progressive fads.
For instance, there is a plutocratic assumption behind the phrase
'Why should woman be economically dependent upon man?'
The answer is that among poor and practical people she isn"t;
except in the sense in which he is dependent upon her.
A hunter has to tear his clothes; there must be somebody to mend them.
A fisher has to catch fish; there must be somebody to cook them.
It is surely quite clear that this modern notion that woman is a mere
'pretty clinging parasite,' 'a plaything,' etc., arose through the somber
contemplation of some rich banking family, in which the banker, at least,
went to the city and pretended to do something, while the banker"s
wife went to the Park and did not pretend to do anything at all.
A poor man and his wife are a business partnership. If one partner
in a firm of publishers interviews the authors while the other
interviews the clerks, is one of them economically dependent?
Was Hodder a pretty parasite clinging to Stoughton? Was Marshall
a mere plaything for Snelgrove?

In these groups, the death rates from Bright"s disease, pneumonia and

suicide were higher than the normal
In these groups, the death rates from Bright"s disease, pneumonia and
suicide were higher than the normal.

'The effect of the wars was that the ranks of the small farmers

were decimated, while the number of slaves who did not serve in
the army multiplied,' says Professor Bury
'The effect of the wars was that the ranks of the small farmers
were decimated, while the number of slaves who did not serve in
the army multiplied,' says Professor Bury. Thus 'Vir gave place
to Homo,' thus the mob filled Rome and the mob-hero rose to the
imperial throne. No wonder that Constantine seemed greater than
Augustus. No wonder that 'if Tiberius chastised his subjects
with whips, Valentinian chastised them with scorpions.'[2]

V

V.--On the connexion with Religion, we have seen that he is strenuous
in his antagonism to the doctrine of the dependence of morality on the
will of God. But, like other moralists of the same class, he is careful
to add:--"Although religion can with no propriety be considered as the
sole foundation of morality, yet when we are convinced that God is
infinitely good, and that he is the friend and protector of virtue,
this belief affords the most powerful inducements to the practice of
every branch of our duty." He has (Book III.) elaborately discussed the
principles of Natural Religion, but, like Adam Smith, makes no
reference to the Bible, or to Christianity. He is disposed to assume
the benevolence of the Deity, but considers that to affirm it
positively is to go beyond our depth.

Lazear"s death naturally served to dampen our fruition at the

success of the mosquito experiments, but, this notwithstanding,
when the facts were known we were the subjects of much
congratulation and the question whether the theory had been
definitely demonstrated or not was the theme of conversation
everywhere, about Havana and Camp Columbia particularly
Lazear"s death naturally served to dampen our fruition at the
success of the mosquito experiments, but, this notwithstanding,
when the facts were known we were the subjects of much
congratulation and the question whether the theory had been
definitely demonstrated or not was the theme of conversation
everywhere, about Havana and Camp Columbia particularly. We
fully realized that three cases, two experimental and one
accidental, were not sufficient proof, and that the medical
world was sure to look with doubt upon any opinion based on
such meager evidence; besides, in the case of Carroll, we had
been unable to exclude the possibility of other means of
infection, so that we really had but one case, Dean"s, that we
could present as clearly demonstrative and beyond question. In
spite of this, we thought that the results warranted their
presentation in the shape of a 'Preliminary Note,' and after
all the data were carefully collected from Lazear"s records and
those at the Military Hospital, a short paper was prepared
which the Major had the privilege to read at the meeting of the
American Public Health Association, held on October 24, in the
city of Indianapolis.

He objects to the theory of Adam Smith, that no allowance is made in it

for the transfer of our feelings, and the disappearing of the original
reference from the view
He objects to the theory of Adam Smith, that no allowance is made in it
for the transfer of our feelings, and the disappearing of the original
reference from the view. Granting that our approbation began in
sympathy, as Smith says, certain it is, that the adult man approves
actions and dispositions as right, while he is distinctly aware that no
process of sympathy intervenes between the approval and its object. He
repeats, against Smith, the criticism on Hume, that the sympathies have
no _imperative_ character of supremacy. He further remarks that the
reference, in our actions, to the point of view of the spectator, is
rather an expedient for preserving our impartiality than a fundamental
principle of Ethics. It nearly coincides with the Christian precept of
doing unto others as we would they should do unto us,--an admirable
practical maxim, but, as Leibnitz has said truly, intended only as a
correction of self-partiality. Lastly, he objects to Smith, that his
system renders all morality relative to the pleasure of our coinciding
in feeling with others, which is merely to decide on the Faculty,
without considering the Standard. Smith shrinks from Utility as a
standard, or ascribes its power over our feelings to our sense of the
adaptation of means to ends.

Books Eighth and Ninth

Books Eighth and Ninth. Friendship:--Grounds of Friendship. Varieties
of Friendship, corresponding to different objects of liking.
Friendship between the virtuous is alone perfect. A settled habit, not
a mere passion. Equality in friendship. Political friendships.
Explanation of the family affections. Rule of reciprocity of services.
Conflicting obligations. Cessation of friendships. Goodwill. Love felt
by benefactors. Self-love. Does the happy man need friends?

(2) It is true that human beings are apt to regard Virtue as an

end-in-itself, and not merely as a means to happiness as the final
end
(2) It is true that human beings are apt to regard Virtue as an
end-in-itself, and not merely as a means to happiness as the final
end. But the fact is fully accounted for on the general law of
Association by Contiguity; there being many other examples of the same
kind, as the love of money. Justice, Veracity, and other virtues, are
requisite, to some extent, for the existence of society, and, to a
still greater extent, for prosperous existence. Under such
circumstances, it would certainly happen that the means would
participate in the importance of the end, and would even be regarded
as an end in itself.

In children faulty posture may mar the future of the individual by

causing spinal curvature and physical deformities that interfere with
physical and mental efficiency throughout life, and often lower the
resistance to disease
In children faulty posture may mar the future of the individual by
causing spinal curvature and physical deformities that interfere with
physical and mental efficiency throughout life, and often lower the
resistance to disease. Deep breathing through the nose and 'setting up'
exercises are of incalculable importance in such cases.

The fact that all soils are exhaustible establishes the necessity for

agricultural education, by whose aid the processes of impoverishment may
be limited in number and diminished in force; and the realization of
this fact by the public generally is the only justification necessary
for those who advocate the immediate application of means to the
proposed end
The fact that all soils are exhaustible establishes the necessity for
agricultural education, by whose aid the processes of impoverishment may
be limited in number and diminished in force; and the realization of
this fact by the public generally is the only justification necessary
for those who advocate the immediate application of means to the
proposed end.

It is impossible to classify logically in any simple scheme all the

possible forms of expression
It is impossible to classify logically in any simple scheme all the
possible forms of expression. The diagram will serve, however, to call
attention to some of the chief modes of bodily expression, and also to
the results of the bodily expressions in the arts and vocations. Here
again the process of subdivision and extension can be carried out
indefinitely. The laugh can be made to tell many different stories.
Crying may express bitter sorrow or uncontrollable joy. Vocal speech may
be carried on in a thousand tongues. Dramatic action may be made to
portray the whole range of human feelings. Plays and games are wide
enough in their scope to satisfy the demands of all ages and every
people. The handicrafts cover so wide a range that the material progress
of civilization can be classed under them, and indeed without their
development the arts and vocations would be impossible. Architecture,
sculpture, painting, music, and literature have a thousand possibilities
both in technique and content. Likewise the modes of society, conduct,
and religion are unlimited in their forms of expression.

With the allowance thus made for the effect of association, the author

considers it proved that there is in reality nothing desired except
happiness
With the allowance thus made for the effect of association, the author
considers it proved that there is in reality nothing desired except
happiness. Whatever is desired otherwise than as a means to some end
beyond itself, and ultimately to happiness, is not desired for itself
till it has become such. Human nature is so constituted, he thinks,
that we desire nothing but what is either a part of happiness or a
means of happiness; and no other proof is required that these are the
only things desirable. Whether this psychological assertion be correct,
must be determined by the self-consciousness and observation of the
most practised observers of human nature.

'The effect of the wars was that the ranks of the small farmers

were decimated, while the number of slaves who did not serve in
the army multiplied,' says Professor Bury
'The effect of the wars was that the ranks of the small farmers
were decimated, while the number of slaves who did not serve in
the army multiplied,' says Professor Bury. Thus 'Vir gave place
to Homo,' thus the mob filled Rome and the mob-hero rose to the
imperial throne. No wonder that Constantine seemed greater than
Augustus. No wonder that 'if Tiberius chastised his subjects
with whips, Valentinian chastised them with scorpions.'[2]


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In his love of subtle distinctions, he asks, Is happiness a thing

admirable in itself, or a thing praiseworthy? It is admirable in
itself; for what is praiseworthy has a relative character, and is
praised as conducive to some ulterior end; while the chief good must
be an End in itself, for the sake of which everything else is done
(XII
In his love of subtle distinctions, he asks, Is happiness a thing
admirable in itself, or a thing praiseworthy? It is admirable in
itself; for what is praiseworthy has a relative character, and is
praised as conducive to some ulterior end; while the chief good must
be an End in itself, for the sake of which everything else is done
(XII.). [This is a defective recognition of Relativity.]


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It is easy to enumerate the advantages of a system of public education,

and the evils--I say evils--of endowed academies, whether free or
charging payment for tuition
It is easy to enumerate the advantages of a system of public education,
and the evils--I say evils--of endowed academies, whether free or
charging payment for tuition. Endowed academies are not, in all
respects, under all circumstances, and everywhere, to be condemned. In
discussing this subject, it may be well for me to state the view that I
have of the proper position of endowed academies. They have a place in
the educational wants of this age. This is especially true of academies
of the highest rank, which furnish an elevated and extended course of
instruction. To such I make no objection, but I would honor and
encourage them. Yet I regard private schools, which do the work usually
done in public schools, as temporary, their necessity as ephemeral, and
I think that under a proper public sentiment they will soon pass away.
They cannot stand,--such has been the experience in Massachusetts,--they
cannot stand by the side of a good system of public education. Yet where
the population is sparse, where there is not property sufficient to
enable the people to establish a high school, then an endowed school may
properly come in to make up the deficiency, to supply the means of
education to which the public wealth, at the present moment, is unequal.
Endowed institutions very properly, also, give a professional education
to the people. At this moment we cannot look to the public to give that
education which is purely professional. But what we do look to the
public for is this: to furnish the means of education to the children of
the whole people, without any reference to social, pecuniary, political,
or religious distinctions, so that every person may have a preliminary
education sufficient for the ordinary business of life.


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It should be said that a few astronomers doubt whether the

order of evolution is so clearly defined as I have outlined it;
in fact, whether we know even the main trend of the
evolutionary process
It should be said that a few astronomers doubt whether the
order of evolution is so clearly defined as I have outlined it;
in fact, whether we know even the main trend of the
evolutionary process. We occasionally encounter the opinion
that the subject is still so unsettled as not to let us say
whether the helium stars are effectively young or the red stars
are effectively old. Lockyer and Russell have proposed
hypotheses in which the order of evolutionary sequence begins
with comparatively cool red stars and proceeds through the
yellow stars to the very hot blue stars, and thence back
through the yellow stars to cool red stars.


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The plant alone through its individual cells, and by its living

protoplasm has fundamentally creative power
The plant alone through its individual cells, and by its living
protoplasm has fundamentally creative power. It can build up
and restore better than it can eliminate waste products.


?p=254
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title=View posts for June 2007

The interest in this subject does not seem to have been confined to the

Legislature, nor even to have originated there
The interest in this subject does not seem to have been confined to the
Legislature, nor even to have originated there. The report of the
committee contains an extract from a communication made by Rev. William
C. Woodbridge, then editor of the _American Annals of Education and
Instruction_. His views were adopted by the committee, and they
corresponded with those which have been already quoted. The dangers of a
large fund were presented, and the example of Connecticut, and some
states of the West, where school funds had diminished rather than
increased the public interest in education, was tendered as a warning
against a too liberal appropriation of public money. On the other hand,
Mr. Woodbridge claimed that the establishment of a fund which should
encourage efforts rather than supply all wants, and, without sustaining
the schools, give aid to the people in proportion to their own
contributions, was a measure indispensable to the cause of education. He
also referred to the experience of New Jersey, which had made a general
appropriation to be paid to those towns that should contribute for the
support of their own schools; but, such was the public indifference,
that after many years the money was still in the treasury. Hence it was
inferred that all these measures were ineffectual, and that mere
taxation was, upon the whole, to be preferred to any imperfect system.
But the example of New York was approved, where the distribution of a
small sum, equal to about twenty cents for each pupil, had increased the
public interest, and wrought what then seemed to be an effectual and
permanent revolution in educational affairs. These facts and reasonings,
say the committee, seem to be important and sound, and to result in
this,--that no provision ought to be made which shall diminish the
present amount of money raised by taxes for the schools, or the interest
felt by the people in their prosperity; that a fund may be so used as
satisfactorily to increase both--and that further information in regard
to our schools is requisite to determine the best mode of doing this.
These opinions are supported generally by the judgment of the present
generation. Yet it is to be remarked, by way of partial dissent, that
the public apathy in Connecticut and the states of the West was not in a
great degree the effect of the funds, but was rather a coexisting,
independent fact. It ought not, therefore, to have been expected that
the mere offer of money for educational purposes, while the people had
no just idea of the importance of education or of the means by which it
could be acquired, would lead them even to accept the proffered boon;
and it certainly, in their judgment, furnished no reason for
self-taxation. It is, however, no doubt true that the power of local
taxation for the support of schools is in its exercise a means of
provoking interest in education; and it is reasonable to assume that a
public system of instruction will never be vigorous and efficient at all
times and under all circumstances where the right of local taxation does
not exist or is not exercised. When the entire expenditure is derived
from the income of public funds, or obtained by a universal tax, and the
proceeds distributed among the towns, parishes, or districts, there will
often be general conditions of public sentiment unfavorable, if not
hostile, to schools; and, there will always be found in any state,
however small, local indifference and lethargy which render all gifts,
donations, and distributions, comparatively valueless. The subject of
self-taxation annually is important in connection with a system of free
education. It is the experience of the states of this country that the
people themselves are more generous in the use of this power than are
their representatives; and it is also true that when the power has been
exercised by the people, there is usually more interest awakened in
regard to modes of expenditure, and more zeal manifested in securing
adequate returns. The private conversations and public debates often
arouse an interest which would never have been manifested had the means
of education been furnished by a fund, or been distributed as the
proceeds of a general tax assessed by the government of the state.


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Aristotle enumerates five analogous forms of quasi-courage,

approaching more or less to genuine courage
Aristotle enumerates five analogous forms of quasi-courage,
approaching more or less to genuine courage. (1) The first, most like
to the true, is political courage, which is moved to encounter danger
by the Punishments and the Honours of society. The desire of honour
rises to virtue, and is a noble spring of action. (2) A second kind is
the effect of Experience, which dispels seeming terrors, and gives
skill to meet real danger. (3) Anger, Spirit, Energy [Greek: thymos] is
a species of courage, founded on physical power and excitement, but not
under the guidance of high emotions. (4) The Sanguine temperament, by
overrating the chances of success, gives courage. (5) Lastly, Ignorance
of the danger may have the same effect as courage (VIII.).


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Of the many forms of business and financial relation among men,

none is more important than those included under the name of
insurance
Of the many forms of business and financial relation among men,
none is more important than those included under the name of
insurance. Insurance is a form of mutual help. By its influence
the effects of calamity are spread so widely that they cease to
be felt as calamity. The fact of death can not be set aside,
but through insurance it need not appear as economic disaster,
only as personal loss. Its essential nature is that of social
cooperation and it furnishes some of the most effective of
bonds which knit society together. As insurance has become
already an international function, its influence should be felt
continuously on the side of peace. That it is so felt is the
justification of our meeting together to-day, as underwriters
of insurance and as workers for peace. The essence of
insurance, as Professor Royce observes, is that


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Thin people lose heat more readily than stout people, as they have a

larger percentage of active tissue and expose more skin surface in
proportion to the body weight
Thin people lose heat more readily than stout people, as they have a
larger percentage of active tissue and expose more skin surface in
proportion to the body weight. They require, therefore, an abundant
supply of energy food, or fuel foods, fats, starch and sugar. Butter
and olive oil are better than other fats and less likely to disturb the
digestion. Sugar is a valuable fuel food, but should not be taken in
concentrated form into an empty stomach. Sweets are best taken at the
end of a meal, but in such cases the teeth should be well cleansed.
Fruit at the end of a meal tends to prevent any injury to the teeth from
sugar and starches.


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Into this, called the 'infected clothing building,' three beds

and a stove, to maintain a high tropical temperature, were
introduced; also mattresses and pillows, underwear, pajamas,
towels, sheets, blankets, etc
Into this, called the 'infected clothing building,' three beds
and a stove, to maintain a high tropical temperature, were
introduced; also mattresses and pillows, underwear, pajamas,
towels, sheets, blankets, etc., soiled with blood and
discharges from yellow fever cases: these articles were put on
the beds, hung about the room and packed in a trunk and two
boxes placed there for the purpose.


?p=205
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Whether or not there is one principal cause that determines the

unfavorable trend of mortality in this country as compared to other
civilized nations has not yet been conclusively shown
Whether or not there is one principal cause that determines the
unfavorable trend of mortality in this country as compared to other
civilized nations has not yet been conclusively shown.


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Many indeed are aware that we owe these 'marvels' to scientific

research, but very few indeed, to the shame of our schools be
it spoken, have attained to the faintest realization of the
indubitable fact that we owe almost the entirety of our
material environment, and no small proportion of our social and
spiritual environment, to the labors of scientists or of their
spiritual brethren
Many indeed are aware that we owe these 'marvels' to scientific
research, but very few indeed, to the shame of our schools be
it spoken, have attained to the faintest realization of the
indubitable fact that we owe almost the entirety of our
material environment, and no small proportion of our social and
spiritual environment, to the labors of scientists or of their
spiritual brethren.


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4. Observe the instruction of children to discover the extent to which
use is made of the _constructive_ instinct. The _collecting_ instinct.
The _dramatic_ instinct. Describe a plan by which each of these
instincts can be successfully used in some branch of study.


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THE INTERESTS OF LATER CHILDHOOD

THE INTERESTS OF LATER CHILDHOOD.--In the period from second dentition
to puberty there is a great widening in the scope of interests, as well
as a noticeable change in their character. Activity is still the
keynote; but the child is no longer interested merely in the doing, but
is now able to look forward to the end sought. Interests which are
somewhat indirect now appeal to him, and the how of things attracts his
attention. He is beginning to reach outside of his own little circle,
and is ready for handicraft, reading, history, and science. Spelling,
writing, and arithmetic interest him partly from the activities
involved, but more as a means to an end.


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His next remarks are on the Selfish Systems, his reply to which is the

assertion of disinterested Affections
His next remarks are on the Selfish Systems, his reply to which is the
assertion of disinterested Affections. He distinguishes two modes of
assigning self-interest as the sole motive of virtuous conduct. First,
it may be said that in every so-called virtuous action, we see some
good to self, near or remote. Secondly, it may be maintained that we
become at last disinterested by the associations of our own interest.


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The wearing of loose, porous clothing, and the air bath--exercise in a

cool room without clothing--are also valuable measures in skin training
The wearing of loose, porous clothing, and the air bath--exercise in a
cool room without clothing--are also valuable measures in skin training.
Very heavy wraps and fur coats should be worn only during unusual
exposure, as in driving or motoring. Outer clothing should be adapted to
the changes in the weather, and medium-weight underclothing worn
throughout the winter season. Office-workers and others employed indoors
are, during the greater part of the day, living in a summer temperature.
The wearing of heavy underclothing under such conditions is debilitating
to the skin and impairs the resisting power.


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To sum up:--the principal constituents of the moral sense are

Gratitude, Sympathy (or Pity), Resentment, and Shame; the secondary and
auxiliary causes are Education, Imitation, General Opinion, Laws and
Government
To sum up:--the principal constituents of the moral sense are
Gratitude, Sympathy (or Pity), Resentment, and Shame; the secondary and
auxiliary causes are Education, Imitation, General Opinion, Laws and
Government.


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